The Black Death The Worst Event in European History

The Black Death was an epidemic which spread across almost all of Europe in the years 1346-53. The plague killed over a third of the entire population. It has been described as the worst natural disaster in European history and is responsible for changing the course of that history to a great degree. There is no dispute that the Black Death, otherwise known as the â€Å"Great Mortality, † or simply â€Å"The Plague,† was a trans-continental disease which swept Europe and killed millions during the fourteenth century. However, there is now argument over exactly what this epidemic was. The traditional and most widely accepted  answer is the bubonic plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia Pestis, which scientists found in samples taken from French plague pits where bodies were buried. Transmission Yersinia Pestis was spread through infected fleas which lived first on black rats, a type of rat which is happy to live near humans and, crucially, on ships. Once infected, the rat population would die off, and the fleas would turn to humans, infecting them instead. After three to five days of incubation, the disease would spread to the lymph nodes, which would swell into large-blister like ‘buboes’ (hence ‘bubonic’ plague), usually in the thigh, armpit, groin, or neck. 60 - 80% of those infected would die within another three to five days. Human fleas, once blamed quite heavily, in reality, contributed only a fraction of cases. Variations The plague could turn into a more virulent airborne variant called pneumonic plague, where the infection spread to the lungs, causing the victim to cough up blood which could infect others. Some people have argued this aided the spread, but others have proven it wasn’t common and accounted for a very small amount of cases. Even rarer was a septicemic version, where the infection overwhelmed the blood; this was nearly always fatal. Dates The main instance of the Black Death was between 1346 to 1353, although the plague returned to many areas again in waves during 1361-3, 1369-71, 1374-75, 1390, 1400, and after. Because extremes of cold and heat slow the flea down, the bubonic version of the plague tended to spread during the spring and summer, slowing right down during winter (the lack of many winter cases across Europe is cited as further evidence the Black Death was caused by Yersinia Pestis). Spreading The Black Death originated in the northwest shores of the Caspian Sea, in the land of the Mongol Golden Horde, and spread into Europe when the Mongols attacked an Italian trading post at Kaffa in the Crimea. Plague struck the besiegers in 1346 and then entered the town, to be carried abroad when the traders hurriedly left on ships the next spring. From there the plague traveled rapidly, through rats and fleas living on board ships, to Constantinople and other Mediterranean ports in the thriving European trade network, and from there through the same network inland. By 1349, much of Southern Europe had been affected, and by 1350, the plague had spread into Scotland and north Germany. Overland transmission was, again, either via rat or fleas on people/clothing/goods, along communication routes, often as people fled the plague. The spread was slowed by cool/winter weather but could last through it. By the end of 1353, when the epidemic reached into Russia, only a few small areas such as Finland and Iceland had been spared, thanks largely to only having a small role in international trade. Asia Minor, the Caucasus, the Middle East, and North Africa also suffered. Death Toll Traditionally, historians accept that there were variations in the rates of mortality as different areas suffered slightly differently, but roughly one-third (33%) of Europe’s entire population succumbed between 1346-53, somewhere in the region of 20-25 million people. Britain is often quoted as losing 40%. Recent work by O.J. Benedictow has produced a controversially higher figure: he argues that mortality was surprisingly consistent across the continent and that, in reality, three-fifths (60%) perished; roughly 50 million people. There is some dispute about urban versus rural losses but, in general, the rural population suffered as heavily as the urban ones, a key factor given that 90% of Europe’s population lived in rural areas. In England alone, deaths rendered 1000 villages unviable and survivors left them. While the poor had a higher chance of contracting the disease, the rich and noble still suffered, including King Alfonso XI of Castile, who died, as did a quarter of the Pope’s staff at Avignon (the papacy had left Rome at this point and hadnt yet returned). Medical Knowledge The majority of people believed the plague was sent by God, largely as a punishment for sins. Medical knowledge in this period was insufficiently developed for any effective treatments, with many doctors believing the disease was due to ‘miasma,’ the pollution of the air with toxic matter from rotting material. This did prompt some attempts to clean up and provide better hygiene – the King of England sent a protest at the filth in London’s streets, and people were afraid of catching the illness from affected corpses – but it didn’t tackle the root cause of rat and flea. Some people seeking answers turned to astrology and blamed a conjunction of the planets. â€Å"End† of the Plague The great epidemic ended in 1353, but waves followed it for centuries. However, medical and governmental developments pioneered in Italy had, by the seventeenth century, spread across Europe, providing plague hospitals, health boards, and counter-measures; plague consequently decreased, to become unusual in Europe. Consequences The immediate aftermath of the Black Death was a sudden decline in trade and a halt to wars, though both of these picked up soon after. More long term effects were the reduction of land under cultivation and a rise in labor costs due to the vastly reduced laboring population, who were able to claim higher remittance for their work. The same applied to skilled professions in towns, and these changes, coupled with a greater social mobility, have been seen to underpin the Renaissance: with fewer people holding more money, they allotted more funds toward cultural and religious items. In contrast, the position of landowners weakened, as they found labor costs to be much more, and encouraged a turn to cheaper, labor-saving devices. In many ways, the Black Death sped up the change from the medieval to the  modern era. The Renaissance began a permanent change in Europes life, and it owes a great deal to the horrors of the plague. Out of decay comes forth sweetness indeed. In Northern Europe, the Black Death affected culture, with an artistic movement focusing on death and what happens after, which stood in contrast to the other cultural trends in the region. The church was weakened as people grew disillusioned when it proved unable to satisfactorily explain or deal with the plague, and many inexperienced/swiftly educated priests had to be rushed into filling the offices. Conversely, many often richly endowed churches were built by grateful survivors. The Name Black Death The name ‘Black Death’ was actually a later term for the plague, and may derive from a mistranslation of a Latin term which means both ‘terrible’ and ‘black’ death; it has nothing to do with the symptoms. Contemporaries of the plague often called it â€Å"plaga,† or â€Å"pest†/†pestis.†

A Moment That Changed My Life - 1112 Words

John Trimble 9 January 2003 How Fight Club Changed My Life Once, I was a young boy who believed everything I heard, yet I knew nothing. I was impressionable and weak. Above all else, I was confused. I did not understand myself, and I did not realize why I wasn’t happy. Everything always went wrong. I felt my life slipping away into oblivion with no palpable meaning. My life was an endless array of homework, band camp, theater, girls, and a myriad other things that were not making me happy. Day after day, like a tumor, I felt weakness and futility grow inside me. Author Chuck Palahniuk writes, â€Å"This is your life, and it’s ending one minute at a time (29).† I was lost with no map to guide me†¦until I read Fight Club, by Chuck†¦show more content†¦I was a prisoner in the iron bars of my own mind. In Palahniuk’s words, â€Å"I felt trapped. I was too complete. I was too perfect. I wanted a way out of my life (173).† Then, I began to wonder: When I die, does it really matter if I feel good about my life? Is perfection really the answer I am looking for? â€Å"Nothing is static, even the Mona Lisa is falling apart (49).† I had spent my whole life wondering why I wasn’t satisfied, and in the meantime, my life was passing me by. â€Å"This is the greatest moment of your life, and you’re off somewhere missing it (77),† Palahniuk says, â€Å"Quit treading water and do something with [your] life (83).† The answer hit me like a dump truck. If I live wholly in the moment, only then will I truly be alive. What good are worries and regret? Palahniuk writes, â€Å"A moment is the most you could ever expect from perfection.† Whenever I fail, it is best to simply accept my failure and move on. I have chosen to accept my foibles as a beautiful necessity in life, for it is impossible to separate myself from them. I cannot not change the past, so there is no use regretting it. I cannot change the future, so there is no use dwelling in it. All I have is the moment, and that is where I will live. It was as if I were reborn. With all the new time I spent not criticizing myself, I began to truly live. Given, I am still the same eccentric boy on theShow MoreRelatedThe Moment That Changed My Life877 Words   |  4 PagesThe moment that changed my life. This essay is based on an event that changed my life forever. It is a passage that is mixed with feelings and emotions. This experience gave my life a purpose and a sense of direction. It allowed me to grow from a boy to a man in just one day. It was a cold, rainy winter morning in Liverpool. I had gone about my morning no different than any other working day. By 6:30AM I was showered, dressed, and full from my huge bowl of cereal. This gave me fifteen minutesRead MoreA Moment That Changed My Life - Essay1778 Words   |  8 PagesThis is my creative essay for the Film Program at NYU. The prompt was: Introduce yourself. 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Income Measurement and Profitability Analysis Free Essays

Chapter 5 Income Measurement and Profitability Analysis exercises Exercise 5–1 Requirement 1 Alpine West should recognize revenue over the ski season on an anticipated usage basis, in this case equally throughout the season. The fact that the $450 price is nonrefundable is not relevant to the revenue recognition decision. Revenue should be recognized as it is earned, in this case as the services are provided during the ski season. We will write a custom essay sample on Income Measurement and Profitability Analysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now Requirement 2 November 6, 2013 Cash450 Unearned revenue450 To record the cash collection December 31, 2013 Unearned revenue ($450 x 1/5)90 Revenue90 To recognize revenue earned in December (no revenue earned in November, as season starts on December 1). Requirement 3 $90 is included in revenue in the 2013 income statement. The $360 remaining balance in unearned revenue is included in the current liability section of the 2013 balance sheet. Exercise 5–3 Requirement 1 2013 cost recovery %: $234,000 = 65% (gross profit % = 35%) $360,000 2014 cost recovery %: $245,000 = 70% (gross profit % = 30%) $350,000 2013 gross profit: Cash collection from 2013 sales of $150,000 x 35%=$52,500 2014 gross profit: Cash collection from 2013 sales of $100,000 x 35%=$ 35,000 +Cash collection from 2014 sales of $120,000 x 30%= 36,000 Total 2014 gross profit $71,000 Requirement 2 2013 deferred gross profit balance: 2013 initial gross profit ($360,000 – 234,000)$126,000 Less: Gross profit recognized in 2013 (52,500) Balance in deferred gross profit account$73,500 2014 deferred gross profit balance: 2013 initial gross profit ($360,000 – 234,000)$ 126,000 Less: Gross profit recognized in 2013 (52,500) Gross profit recognized in 2014(35,000) 2014 initial gross profit ($350,000 – 245,000)105,000 Less: Gross profit recognized in 2014 (36,000) Balance in deferred gross profit account$107,500 Exercise 5–4 2013 Installment receivables360,000 Inventory234,000 Deferred gross profit126,000 To record installment sales 2013 Cash150,000 Installment receivables150,000 To record cash collections from installment sales 2013 Deferred gross profit52,500 Realized gross profit52,500 To recognize gross profit from installment sales 2014 Installment receivables350,000 Inventory245,000 Deferred gross profit105,000 To record installment sales 2014 Cash220,000 Installment receivables220,000 To record cash collections from installment sales 2014 Deferred gross profit71,000 Realized gross profit71,000 To recognize gross profit from installment sales Exercise 5–5 Requirement 1 YearIncome recognized 2013$180,000 ($300,000 – 120,000) 2014- 0 – 2015- 0 – 2016 – 0 – Total$180,000 Requirement 2 Cost recovery %: $120,000 ————- = 40% (gross profit % = 60%) $300,000 | | | | |Year |Cash Collected |Cost Recovery(40%) |Gross Profit(60%) | |2013 |$ 75,000 |$ 30,000 |$ 45,000 | |2014 | 75,000 | 30,000 | 45,000 | |2015 | 75,000 | 30,000 | 45,000 | |2016 | 75,000 | 30,000 | 45,000 | | Totals |$300,000 |$120,000 |$180,000 | | | | | | Requirement 3 | | | | | |Year |Cash Collected |Cost Recovery |Gross Profit | |2013 |$ 75,000 |$ 75,000 | – 0 – | |2014 | 75,000 | 45,000 $ 30,000 | |201 5 | 75,000 | – 0 – | 75,000 | |2016 | 75,000 | – 0 – | 75,000 | | Totals |$300,000 |$120,000 |$180,000 | | | | | | Exercise 5–11 Requirement 1 20132014 Contract price$2,000,000$2,000,000 Actual costs to date 300,0001,875,000 Estimated costs to complete 1,200,000 – 0 – Total estimated costs 1,500,0001,875,000 Gross profit (estimated in 2013)$ 500,000$ 125,000 Gross profit recognition: 2013: $ 300,000 = 20% x $500,000 = $100,000 $1,500,000 2014:$125,000 – 100,000 = $25,000 Requirement 2 2013$ – 0 – 2014$125,000 Requirement 3 | | | | | |Balance Sheet | | | | |At December 31, 2013 | | | |Current assets: | | | | |Accounts receivable | |$ 130,000 | | |Costs and profit ($400,000*) in excess | | | | |of billings ($380,000) | |20,000 | | | | | | | * Costs ($300,000) + profit ($100,000) Exercise 5–11 (concluded) Requirement 4 | | | | |Balance Sheet | | | | |At December 31, 2013 | | | | |Current assets: | | | | | Accounts receivable | |$ 130,000 | | | | | | | |Current liabilities: | | | | |Billings ($380,000) in excess of costs ($300,000) | |$ 80,000 | | | | | | | problems Problem 5–2 Requirement 1 2013 cost recovery % : $180,000 = 60% (gross profit % = 40%) $300,000 2014 cost recovery %: $280,000 = 70% (gross profit % = 30%) $400,000 2013 gross profit: Cash collection from 2013 sales = $120,000 x 40%= $48,000 2014 gross profit: Cash collection from 2013 sales = $100,000 x 40%= $ 40,000 +Cash collection from 2014 sales = $150,000 x 30%= 45,000 Total 2014 gross profit $85,000 Requirement 2 013 Installment receivables300,000 Inventory180,000 Deferred gross profit120,000 To record installment sales Cash120,000 Installment receivables120,000 To record cash collections from installment sales Deferred gross profit48,000 Realized gross profit48,000 To recognize gross profit from installment sales Problem 5–2 (continued) 2014 Installment receivables400,000 Inventory280,000 Deferred gr oss profit120,000 To record installment sales Cash250,000 Installment receivables250,000 To record cash collections from installment sales Deferred gross profit85,000 Realized gross profit85,000 To recognize gross profit from installment sales Requirement 3 | | | | |Date |Cash Collected |Cost Recovery |Gross Profit | | | | | | |2013 | | | | |2013 sales |$120,000 |$120,000 |- 0 – | | | | | | |2014 | | | |2013 sales | $100,000 | $ 60,000 |$40,000 | |2014 sales | 150,000 | 150,000 | – 0 – | | 2014 totals |$250,000 |$210,000 |$40,000 | | | | | | Problem 5–2 (concluded) 2013 Installment receivables300,000 Inventory180,000 Deferred gross profit120,000 To record installment sales Cash120,000 Installment receivables120,000 To record cash collection from installment sales 2014 Installment receivables400,000 Inventory280,000 Deferred gross profit120,000 To record installment sales Cash250,000 Installment receivables250,000 To record cash collection from installment sales Deferred gross profit40,000 Realized gross profit40,000 To recognize gross profit from installment sales Problem 5–5 Requirement 1 201320142015 Contract price$10,000,000$10,000,000$10,000,000 Actual costs to date 2,400,000 6,000,000 8,200,000 Estimated costs to complete 5,600,000 2,000,000 – 0 – Total estimated costs 8,000,000 8,000,000 8,200,000 Estimated gross profit (loss) (actual in 2015)$ 2,000,000$ 2,000,000$ 1,800,000 Gross profit (loss) recognition: 2013: $2,400,000 = 30. 0% x $2,000,000 = $600,000 $8,000,000 2014: $6,000,000 = 75. 0% x $2,000,000 = $1,500,000 – 600,000 = $900,000 $8,000,000 015:$1,800,000 – 1,500,000 = $300,000 Problem 5–5 (continued) Requirement 2 | | | | | | |2013 |2014 |2015 | | | | | | |Construction in progress |2,400,000 |3,600,000 |2,200,000 | | Various accounts 2,400,000 |3,600,000 |2,200,000 | |To record construction costs | | | | | | | | | |Accounts receiv able |2,000,000 |4,000,000 |4,000,000 | | Billings on construction contract |2,000,000 |4,000,000 |4,000,000 | |To record progress billings | | | | | | | | | |Cash |1,800,000 |3,600,000 |4,600,000 | | Accounts receivable |1,800,000 |3,600,000 |4,600,000 | |To record cash collections | | | | | | | | | |Construction in progress | 600,000 | 900,000 | 300,000 | |(gross profit) | | | | |Cost of construction |2,400,000 |3,600,000 |2,200,000 | |(cost incurred) | | | | | Revenue from long-term contracts (1) |3,000,000 |4,500,000 |2,500,000 | |To record gross profit | | | | | | | | | (1) Revenue recognized: 2013: 30% x $10,000,000 =$3,000,000 2014: 75% x $10,000,000 =$7,500,000 Less: Revenue recognized in 2013(3,000,000) Revenue recognized in 2014$4,500,000 2015: 100% x $10,000,000 =$10,000,000 Less: Revenue recognized in 2013 2014 (7,500,000) Revenue recognized in 2015$2,500,000 Problem 5–5 (continued) Requirement 3 | | | | | |Balance Sheet | |2013 | |2014 | | | | | | | |Curren t assets: | | | | | |Accounts receivable | |$ 200,000 | |$600,000 | |Construction in progress |$3,000,000 | |$7,500,000 | | | Less: Billings |(2,000,000) | |(6,000,000) | | |Costs and profit in excess | | | | | |of billings | |1,000,000 | |1,500,000 | Requirement 4 01320142015 Costs incurred during the year$2,400,000$3,800,000$3,200,000 Estimated costs to complete as of year-end 5,600,000 3,100,000 – 201320142015 Contract price$10,000,000$10,000,000$10,000,000 Actual costs to date 2,400,000 6,200,000 9,400,000 Estimated costs to complete 5,600,000 3,100,000 – 0 – Total estimated costs 8,000,000 9,300,000 9,400,000 Estimated gross profit (actual in 2015)$ 2,000,000$ 700,000$ 600,000 Problem 5–5 (concluded) Gross profit (loss) recognition: 2013: $2,400,000 = 30. 0% x $2,000,000 = $600,000 $8,000,000 2014: $6,200,000 = 66. 6667% x $700,000 = $466,667 – 600,000 = $(133,333) $9,300,000 015:$600,000 – 466,667 = $133,333 Requirement 5 201320142015 Costs incurred during the year$2,400,000$3,800,000$3,900,000 Estimated costs to complete as of year-end 5,600,000 4,100,000 – 201320142015 Contract price$10,000,000$10,000,000$10,000,000 Actual costs to date 2,400,000 6,200,00010,100,000 Estimated costs to complete 5,600,000 4,100,000 – 0 – Total estimated costs 8,000,00010,300,00010,100,000 Estimated gross profit (loss) (actual in 2015)$ 2,000,000$ (300,000)$ (100,000) Gross profit (loss) recognition: 2013: $2,400,000 = 30. 0% x $2,000,000 = $600,000 $8,000,000 2014: $(300,000) – 600,000 = $(900,000) 2015: $(100,000) – (300,000) = $200,000 How to cite Income Measurement and Profitability Analysis, Papers

An Untimely Death Essay Example For Students

An Untimely Death Essay In The story of an Hour, Kate Chopin reveals the complex character, Mrs. Mallard, In a most unusual manner. THe reader is led to believe that her husband has been killed in a railway accident. The other characters in the story are worried about how to break the news to her; they know whe suffers from a heart condition, and they fear for her health. On the surface, the story appears to be about how Mrs. Mallard deals with the news of the death of her husband. On a deeper level, however, the story is about the feeling of intense joy that Mrs. Mallard experiences when she realizes that she is free from the influences of her husband and the consequences of finding out that her new-found freedom is not to be. At First, Mrs. Mallard seems to be genuinely affected by her grief: She wept ar once, with sudden, wild abandonment. When the storm of grief had spent itself she went away to her room alone. SHe would have no one follow her(14). At this point in the story, the reader is able to look into the mind of Mrs. Mallard; she now noticed, as she looked from her window, the tops of trees that were all aquiver with the distant song(15). She noticed the there were patches of blue sky showing here and there through the clouds(15). The other characters in the story have one impression of Mrs. Mallard; she seems to have reacted to the terrible news as one would expect, but the reader is aware that a distinct change has come over her. The story unviels its theme at this point: Mrs. Mallard, for the first time in her life, experiences a new-found freedom. Instead of dreading the future without her husband, she saw beyond that bitter moment a long procession of years to come that would belong to her absolutely(15. She could now live her life and be absolutely free of the imposing will of her husband:There would be no one to live for her during the coming years; she would live for herself. There would be now powerful will bending hers in the blind persistence with which men and women believe they have a right to impose a private will upon a fellow creature. (15)Mrs. Mallard had, in that brief moment of illumination(15), stumbled upon a truth: she was now her own person, free from the confines of her husband. She had loved her husband, sometimes(15), but that didnt matter: What could love .. ..count for in the face of theis possession of self-assertion which she suddenly recognized as the strongest impulse of her being!(15). THE theme of the story unfolds at this point: Mrs. Mallard, through the death of her husband, is able to experience the joy of the realization that she is in control of her own destiny. She is now free, free, free!(15. Mrs. Mallards new-found freedon is not to be, however, as the story takes an ironic, fatal, twist. On the surface, this story appears to be about how Mrs. Mallard accepts the news of the death of her husband; on a deeper level, however, this story examines how Mrs Mallard accepts the possession of her own being which she recognizes as the strongest impulse of her being(15). As she looked out of her window, she was looking at life as she had never seen it before: she was looking drinking in the very elixer of life(16). SHe had never before looked to the future with any optimisim, only dread. She could hardly live with this new-found joy that she had discovered within herself, and ironically, she would not live with new discovery for long. As the story takes an ironic twist, Mr. Mallard turns the latchkey and walks into the room: he had been nowhere near the scene of the accident. THe realization that her new-found joy was not to be was too much for Mrs. .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f , .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f .postImageUrl , .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f , .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f:hover , .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f:visited , .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f:active { border:0!important; } .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f:active , .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u6ddf1ef1aed902d9c4f7b05311b6381f:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: 3-23-99 Final draft #3 Essay Mallards weak heart to take, but she had at least lived for a few, brief, shinning momnents in the realization of her new-found freedom.BibliographyChopin, Kate. The Story of an Hour. Rpt. Fictions 4th Ed. Eds. Joseph f. Trimmer and C. Wade Jennings. New York: Harcourt

IT Industry Essays - Telecommunications Companies, Telephony

IT Industry There are many changes that occurred in the industrial organization of interexchange telecommunication services in the United States during the 1985-1995 period. Let's look at the general idea of Telecommunications. It is the two-way exchange of info in the form of voice or data messages between tow users at distinct geographic locations" (5, 7). The two-way exchange is now a numerous way exchange through the use of computers and the Internet. There are four important areas of the telecommunication industry in the United States. Technology plays a major role in telecommunications. Before technology, there was no such thing as telecommunications. During the ten year period there are some key advances in telecommunications due to technology. With growing technology, more companies want a piece of the action. There is a significant increase in long distance carriers and an increase in the size of these carriers. There is also a large influx in pricing and competition during this period. Another key factor in the success of the telecommunication industry is the regulations established for individual carriers and the industry as a whole. With the increasing size of the industry and the major technological advances, stricter regulations must be present to keep the structure of the industry. Lastly, there are some differences between local and long distance carriers that must be looked at to fully understand the industry. There is also a fifth major aspect that defines Telecommunications, that is the American Telephone &Telegraph Company (AT&T) and the history behind it. Technology is a key aspect in the growth of telecommunications. If one had to point to the single most important reason for the new competition in local telephone markets. It is the advance of technology. Digitalization has reduced barriers between voice telephone, data, and media services (9, 29). Microprocessors are the principal component of digital switches. So as their performance increases and their price falls, switching costs fall and scale and scope economies increase (9, 13). Scope economies mean that a few companies produce many services. The adoption of digital technology in all aspects of the network has improved performance and lowered costs. Digital transmission, whether over copper of fiber cables or over the airwaves, is cleaner and more secure due to more durable cables(9, 16). Technological advances such as fiber optics and wireless transmission have paved the way for competition in the local exchange. But, new technology alone could not bring competition to the local exchange (9, 10). It takes innovations in communications technology and new service offerings pressure both suppliers and industry regulators to change (9, 2). In 1984, there was a large growth in the size of the industry and of its respective business. Teleport offered competitive local business services in New York City (9, 9). Competition is met with aggressive responses, including price cuts and improved service offerings. The new competitiveness effected rates and offerings of local exchange carriers in years to come. In particular, the integration of local, long distance, cellular and cable services establishes the groundwork for offering innovative service packages at Bundled Rates (9, 11). Two factors are most important for the relative advantages of the various new competitors: The incremental costs of building local telephone networks and the pre-existing goodwill with potential subscribers (9, 37). There were gains and mistakes made by several competitive firms during this period. Instead of divesting itself, Ameritech proposed to interconnect with competitors and unbundled its network services selling services at nondiscriminatory cost-based rates (9, 11). They were trying to be competitive in a world of monopoly. In 1994, MCI decided on a strategy to build its own local networks in selected cities for selected customers. Problems struck when they could not reach households. It proved to be very expensive and MCI quietly scaled back its plans. MCI then decided to grow internally by creating its MCImetro division (9, 11). These firms were trying different approaches to compete with AT&T after the divesture. The cost wars during the period also had an affect on companies entering the market. Since average costs are everywhere declining, strong scale economies prevail. Scope economies occur when a single firm can provide an entire array of services more cheaply than a collection of firms who specialize in just a few of those services. Scope economies stem from the joint use of facilities by several services without substantial congestion problems. Costs of local exchange service is "sub additive" which requires the cost of a given level of local services when supplied by a single firm is less than when parceled out to two or more firms. If production

Science fiction Essays

Science fiction Essays Science fiction Essay Science fiction Essay Science fiction BY Pbhattl 23456 Scientifiction: With Great Power Comes Great Responsibility Going back to the past or even travelling into the future using time travel to alter ones present might be a thing in science fiction movies or books today but it is not an impossible thing to do sometime in the future. Ten years or two hundred years who knows but it will be a part of our lives. Scientifiction might be unrealistic in terms of the technology or mythical/supernatural characters used in them but it is not Just another fictional tale. Scientifiction not only gives inspiration to inventors and innovators, but also warns them about the dangers that might come upon the world due to the new invention/innovation. This insight raises the big question, Where should we draw the line while exploring a topic or technology? Snapping your fingers and having fire or waving your wand and having ready food was considered science fiction several years ago. But today we can do these things easily; not literally but we can flip a switch to turn on heat, press a button on the microwave and have food, and urn on the tap and have clean water. Scientifiction doesnt really give us new inventions and technology but they do give us new ideas or insight to things that could be possible with technological development and by exploring new fields. Today we have motorized vehicles, airplanes, and even spaceshuttles which were inspired in one way or the other from science fiction several years ago. Going to the moon and taking pictures of distant planets as well as galaxies were also possible due to the inspiration that scientists, engineers, and inventors got from science fiction books nd movies. Despite of the many benefits achieved from the development of technology, there are many problems or negative effects due to the newly developed technology. For example, cars are very useful to travel from one place to another but we are also polluting the environment due to the harmful gasses which are released into the atmosphere as a byproduct of combustion. Before people used to walk miles and mile to get some work done but today we feel lazy to even turn on the television without the remote control. Obesity and illnesses due to obesity are rising rapidly in individuals at a very young age. Today we depend on machines more than our instincts. Many of us also do not know how to cook food due to readily available frozen foods. Scientifiction movies and books inspire us for new inventions but also warn us about the dangers of these developments. In the science fiction story, The Ape Cycle by Clare Winger Harris, one of the apes says, Our plan must be kept from men as long as they seem to be our masters. even they must not know that they are ot until the time comes to kill them all. (Harris,331) The author is trying to warn us that our inventions could even cause the end of mankind if we do not think about what we are creating. It also suggests that we should not only look at the short term benefit but also look at the long term dangers. Scientifiction gives inspiration to inventors and innovators as well as warns them about the dangers due to the new invention/innovation. It makes u s think about the many important questions like, Where should we draw the line? Are we really helping the society?

Aspects of power in organisations Literature review

Aspects of power in organisations - Literature review Example Based on this context, it is evident that the consideration of organisational politics can offer a basis for challenging the existing paradigm (Sparks, Faragher & Cooper 2001, p. 503). This paper seeks to report the existing literature on power in the context of a noteworthy branch of organisation management, human resource management. The rationale of this paper is informed by the need to raise the profile of the politics of power in HRM. Literature Review The fundamental question that informs this literature review concerns what power has to do with HRM. Reading through HRM textbooks, it quickly becomes clear that power as an idea is rarely examined explicitly (Rigg & Trehan 2004, p. 157). Whenever the issue of power is tackled directly, it is mostly as a question of negotiating power between the organisation and its labour force, the responsibility of empowerment, or the power of organisational leaders to execute punishment or rewards (Ali 2012, p. 983). However, indirectly, power can be termed as an interesting topic in the HRM literature since it prompts the question of the status or influence of HRM as a critical function in organisations. In the context of HRM in organisations, power refers to the deliberate influence over the behaviours, emotions and beliefs of the workforce. However, according to Witt, Andrews & Kacmar (2000, p. 343) power is largely ubiquitous since without power (typified through influence) it is impossible to have cooperation and stability within the organisation. However, by and large, the execution of power often results in problems, which typically stem from the visions of people with power, as well as the way they use their power. Observations have been made regarding the growing significance of HRM in organisations in the last few decades. The human resource (HR) department has become the central figure of organisations, and the question of the influence and role of the HR department has come to the forefront (De Leede & Looise 2005, p. 115). Historical accounts have analysed the emergence of power among HR specialists in organisations, there is no empirical work specifically related to the application of power by HR specialists (Harley & Hardy 2004, p. 378). The ideal of organisations where the entire workforce works collaboratively toward a mutually acceptable goal is common in most HRM rhetoric. However, the reality is quite different since although teamwork is often regarded as one of the most significant organisational virtues, the workplace is often shrouded in demerits such as competition, antagonism and conflict. It is within this context that an in-depth appreciation of influence and power proves essential. All organisations are comprised of individuals with diverse tasks, personal interests and careers (Gotsis & Kortezi 2010, p. 499). According to Sparks, Faragher & Cooper (2001, p. 494) in order to be successful in getting things done, HR specialists need to appreciate the importance of their c apacity to exert influence on the organisation’s entire workforce. In the execution of their power, a vast majority of conventional HRM programs have taken on, whether knowingly or unknowingly, managerialist or functionalist perspectives. Managing typically encompasses the exertion of influence through the use of power. In the contemporary

Understanding Workflow Design Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Understanding Workflow Design - Research Paper Example As a means to expound upon the process, this brief analysis will seek to three different concepts that were related in the workflow assessment of healthcare IT toolkit as well as seeking to summarize the article in question, â€Å"Developing a mentor program for our cardiovascular ICU†, and providing key ways that these techniques could be utilized within the given context. Firstly, with reference to the three techniques for workflow assessment, the ones that this student has selected for being the most pressing involve the following: determining system requirements, creating and maintaining checklists for work flow and completion, and discussion of systems operation with affected shareholders. With respect to the first and third steps, these act as a type of relay within which the director of change can help to categorize the process and make sure that it adequately addresses the needs of the component parts (Rose 127). All too often when change is initiated, regardless of context, it very often takes place at the very upper echelons of management with no forethought with regards to how that change will affect the individuals upon whom it relates. Secondly, with regards to implementing plans and change mechanisms, it is necessary to determine the overall system requirements and seeking to make the workflow match the given needs that are exemplified (R ouse 4). Lastly, writing down a checklist of goals and integrations helps to force the process to portray something that will take careful consideration of all facets that the workflow process will touch upon. As a means of implementing the aforementioned three components, the article that was reviewed, â€Å"Developing a Mentor Program for Our Cardiovascular ICU† helps to acquaint the reader with the needs of providing a paradigm shift in training for the cardiovascular ICU (Bredeger 112). In

Business plan for a restaurant Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Business plan for a restaurant - Assignment Example This group of eight family run restaurants operating in northern California has been undergoing difficulties dealing with human resource issues. The operations manager doubles up as the human resource manager and embarks on a tedious process of physical inspection of the human resource requirements and problems of all the eight restaurants. Not only is this a time consuming and tiring process, the operations manager has also realized that it is costly and very inefficient. Therefore this plan presents a possible solution to the problem in the form of the implementation of an information system which will effectively aid the human resource manager with his operations thus allowing for efficiency and company growth. The restaurant industry is quite competitive with northern California being a haven for great restaurants. It is essential for one to cut a niche in the market and this can only be done if the various organizational resources are effectively managed. The replacement of the current manual system with an automated one will enable the company to manage its employees effectively allowing for good record handling, proper and easy scheduling, and effective communication within the organization. This will see an improvement in business processes which will culminate in the growth of the business reflected as higher profits. Introduction The implementation of an Information system is a vital part of business process transformation. For a business to succeed various steps must be taken to ensure that business process support and improvement is achieved. The use of a Human resource information system is a sure way of attaining this. A human resource information system will ensure that human resource functions are effectively managed by information technology hence creating an environment for profit making and business growth through efficient service provision and management. The human resource department is charged with the responsibility of payroll processing , employee recruitment and employee appraisals. These functions are increasingly becoming complex and thus require sufficient support. Automation of such a department, through the use of information technology, will ensure that the workload is sufficiently reduced and access to information is easy and quick. This business plan examines the effective role of implementing a human resource information system by performing a business analysis that will present the inefficiency of a manual system, and presenting a possible solution in the form of a human resource information system that can be implemented. Company Review The Castle Family Restaurants, a group of eight restaurants in northern California run by the Castle family, is a big employer of both part time and full time employees. It has employed more than 300 employees most of whom are on a part time basis as only 30% of these employees work on a full time basis. The operations manager usually has her hands full as she makes seve ral visits to all the restaurants managed by the group to perform human resource administrative duties such as employee recruitment, appraisals, payroll processing among other functions. This manual process of performing human resource functions is quite costly and very inefficient. Therefore there is a great need for improvement in order to eliminate the

Literature Survey On Steganography

Literature Survey On Steganography In this chapter, the literature survey on the steganography and various network security mechanisms are described. Many existing algorithms for steganography since 1991 to 2009 are studied and presented in this literature survey. Numbers of web sites as well as research papers are referred on virtualization, ARP Spoofing, IDS Architectures. The description of the research papers referred pertaining to steganography and network security are given in the subsequent sections. The literature is presented in chronological order for these two areas separately. 2.2 Literature survey on steganography Bender et al. [6] in this paper, the authors describe the techniques of data hiding like low bit rate data hiding in detail. Johnson, N. and Jajodia S. [34] This article explores the different methods of steganography such as LSB, Masking and Filtering and also explains about different software tools present in the market for Steganography, such as Stego Dos, White Noise Storm, S-tool etc. Marvel et al. [38] It is proposed that (Spread Spectrum Image Steganography) SSIS is a blind scheme where the original image is not needed to extract the hidden information unless the receiver possesses the secret key to extract the secret message, otherwise it is virtually undetectable.Thus making this technique reliable and secure. Jessica Fridrich et al.[32] This paper proposes a highly accurate steganalysis technique which can even estimate the length of secret message embedded in LSB method. In this method, the test image is divided into groups of n consecutive or disjoint pixels. This method exploits the modified pixel values to determine the content of secret message. A discriminating function is applied on the group of pixels. This discriminating function determines the regularity or smoothness of pixels. Then a permutation function called flipping is applied on the pixel groups. By using discriminating function and flipping, Pixels groups are classified in to three categories, i.e Regular groups, Singular groups and Unused Groups. For a given mask, fraction of Regular groups Rm and fraction of singular groups Sm are calculated. Presence of noise in the image causes Rm to be greater than Sm. R. Chandramouli and N. Memon[49] It gives the analysis of various methods of LSB techniques for image steganography. Tseng, Y.C et al. [63] This paper presents a secure steganographic scheme which makes sure that if any modified bit in the cover image should be adjacent to another bit that has the same value as the formers new value. By this way the detection becomes extremely difficult. But for achieving this, data hiding space has to be reduced. Da-Chun Wu, and Wen-Hsiang Tsai [23] proposed a differencing steganographic method that uses the difference between two consecutive pixels in the same block to determine the number of secret bits to be stuffed. In this method a range table is used which ranges from 0-255. The difference value is subsequently adjusted to the difference in the same range to embed the secret bits, and the difference between the original difference value and the new one is shared between the two pixels. Extraction scheme in this method is quite simple and it do not requires cover image. Sorina Dumitrescu et al.[55] This paper proposes a new steganalysis technique to detect LSB steganography in digital signals such as image and audio. This technique is based on statistical analysis of sample pairs. By this technique the length of hidden message embedded via LSB steganography can be estimated with high precision. C.-C.Chang and H.-W. Tseng [9] this paper proposes a novel steganographic technique, which modifies the pixel values. This method does not replace the LSBs of pixel value directly, but changes the pixel value into another similar value. In a word, this steganographic method provides a large embedding capacity with little perceptual distortion. Mei-Yi Wu et al. [40] this paper presents a new iterative method of image steganography based on palette which reduces the Root Mean Square error between an original image and its corresponding stego-image. Based on a palette modification scheme, which can embed one message bit into each pixel in a palette-based image iteratively. The cost of removing an entry color in a palette and the profit of generating a new color to replace the old color are calculated. If the maximal profit exceeds the minimal cost, an entry color is replaced in iteration. C.-K. Chan and L.M. Cheng [11] this paper proposes LSB technique in which the secrete data is embedded in the Least Significant bits of the image pixel. Huaiqing wang and Shuozhong wang [29] Different techniques of steganography and steganalytic methods were discussed in detail in this paper. This paper focuses on LSB modification techniques, Masking techniques, Transformation domain techniques, Techniques incorporated in compression algorithms, and spread spectrum techniques. Then the important attributes of a steganographic system are presented, security, payload and robustness. This paper also presents various steganalytic methods such as, RS steganalysis, Chi-square test, Histogram analysis and universal blind detection. Xinpeng Zhang and Shuozhong Wang [65] this paper proposes the steganalysis of PVD method proposed by Wu and Tsai. This steganalysis is based on Histogram analysis. The zigzag scan of the image pixels produces a vector called Image Vector and the difference of every pair of pixels in this vector produces another vector called Substitute vector. An image from Substitute vector is built which is named as substitute image. Histogram of substitute image is constructed and analyzed. Andrew D. Ker [4] Detecting LSB matching steganography is quiet difficult compared to the LSB replacement steganography. In this paper Histogram characteristic function (HCF) is used for the detection of steganography in color images, but it cannot be used for gray scale images. Alvaro Martà ­n et al. [3] Authors have experimentally investigated three different steganographic algorithms. steg, MHPDM, and one of the algorithm used in S-tools. Jsteg embeds a message in the least significant bit of JPEG DCT coefficients. The MHPDM (Modified Histogram preserving Data Mapping) algorithm, which is developed from HPDM (Histogram Preserving Data Mapping), works by altering the least significant bit of a subset of the JPEG DCT coefficients of an image. Chin-Chen Chang et al. [15] this paper proposes two efficient steganographic methods for gray-level images by utilizing the run-length concept. The two methods embed bits of the secret data in each two-pixel block. In addition, the modular operation is applied in both methods to control image quality. The experimental results demonstrate that both methods in this study perform better than all previous methods, in terms of image quality and embedding capacity. Chin-Chen Chang and Tzu-Chuen Lu [13] the method proposed in this paper exploit the difference in the expansion of the pixels to conceal large amount of message data in a digital image. The payload capacity of the proposed scheme is higher than Tians scheme and Fridrichs scheme.In addition, the quality of the embedded image of the proposed scheme is even higher than those of the other schemes. Chin-Chen Chang and Tzu-Chuen Lu [14] SMVQ (Side Match Vector Quantization) exploits the correlations between the neighbouring blocks to predict the index of an input block that improves not only the block effect of VQ, but also the compression performance of VQ. Owing to the good compression performance and image quality, more concerns are given to SMVQ. Suk-Ling Li et al. [56] In this scheme, the best match cover-image block of the secret-image block is first selected based on the block difference. Then, the error-matrix, the normalized error- matrix, the difference-degree and the quantized-error matrix between the cover-image block and the secret-image block are computed. The block header information is embedded into the cover-image by the simple LSB substitution method. Chin-Chen Chang et al. [17] this new scheme classifies the host image pixels into two groups of pixels according to the pixel values. For each group of pixels, the corresponding secret pixel values go through an optimal substitution process and are transformed into other pixel values by following the dynamic programming strategy. Then, embed the transformed pixel values in the host pixels by using the modulus functions and obtain the stego-image. Hideki Noda et al. [27] The JPEG compression using the discrete cosine transform (DCT) is still the most common compression standard for still images. QIM(Quantization Index Modulation) is applied in DCT(Discrete Cosine Transformation) Domain. DCT based steganographic techniques are immune to Histogram based attacks. Two different quantizers are used with QIM, one for embedding 0 and another for embedding 1. Another method called HM-JPEG(Histogram Matching JPEG) Steganographic method is also presented along with QIM-JPEG Steganography. In these two methods embedding of secret message takes place during quantization of DCT coefficients only, not by modifying quantized DCT coefficients. Chin-Chen Chang et al. [12] it presents a reversible data hiding scheme for compressed digital images based on side match vector quantization (SMVQ). In Vector Quantization or SideMatch Vector quantization based methods VQ and SMVQ Compression codes are damaged by the secret data embedded in the message. And they cannot be constructed completely after extracting the secret data. By using this method, the original Side Match Vector Quantization compression Codes can be completely reconstructed, after extracting the embedded secret data. Ran-Zan Wang and Yeh-Shun Chen [51] this paper presents a new steganography method for images which use a two-way block-matching procedure to find for the maximum similarity block for each block of the image. The indexes which get along with some non matched blocks are noted in the least significant bits of the carrier image, using a hop scheme. This algorithm provides a high data payload capacity. C.-C.Chang and W.-C. Wu [8] this paper provides a technique to improve the embedding capacity without reducing the quality of cover file. That technique is called an adaptive VQ-based data hiding scheme based on a codeword clustering technique. Adaptive embedding method is superior to the fixed embedding method in terms of embedding capacity and stego-image quality. Xinpeng Zhang and Shuozhong Wang [64] a novel method of steganographic embedding in digital images is illustrated in this paper. In this method each secret digit in a (2n+1)-ary notational system is carried by n cover pixels, where n is a system parameter. This method offers a high embedding efficiency than that of previous other techniques. Mehdi Kharrazi et al. [39] this paper gives the experimental evaluation of various steganographic and steganalytic techniques. Chin-Chen Chang et al. [18] in this paper, a new watermarking based image authentication scheme is implemented. The feature extraction process of the proposed scheme is block-based, and the feature of a block is obtained by performing a cryptographic hash function. Then, the bit stream of the feature is folded and embedded into some least significant bits of the central pixel in the corresponding block. Po-Yueh Chen and Hung-Ju Lin [48] this paper proposes a new image steganographic method based on frequency domain embedding. The frequency domain transform applied in this method is Haar-DWT. There are three regions i.e., low frequency region, middle frequency region and high frequency region. And embedding occurs in Middle frequencies. Tse-Hua Lan and Ahmed H. Tewfik [61] the authors have proposed an algorithm which is based on the quantized projection embedding method. Quantized Projection (QP), combines elements from quantization that is QIM and spread-spectrum methods. It is based on quantizing a host signal diversity projection, encouraged in the statistic used for detection in spread-spectrum algorithms. Yuan-Hui Yu a et al. [67] in this method, a color or a grayscale secret image is hided in a true color host image. Procedures to different secret image types are independent. There are three image-hiding types, which depend on the type of secret image. The second type is a palette- based 256-color secret image. The third type is a grayscale secret image. Ran-ZanWang, and Yao-De Tsai [52] This paper presents an efficient image-hiding method that provides a high data hiding capacity that allows the embedded image to be larger than the cover image. In this method the image to be hidden is divided into a series of non-overlapping blocks. A block matching procedure is adapted for each block of the image to search for the best matching block from a pool of candidate blocks. This selection of best matching block is done by K-means clustering method. Then the indices of secret image are hidden in the LSBs of best matching block in the cover image. Bibhas Chandra Dhara and Bhabatosh Chand [7] Block truncation coding and vector quantization are the two widely used spatial domain compression techniques. In the proposed method the inter-plane redundancy is reduced by converting RGB to a less correlated triplet. The spatial redundancy is reduced by block quantization using BTC-PF method and the code redundancy by entropy coding using Huffman code. Nan-I Wu and Min-Shiang Hwang [41] this paper presents a survey of current methods of steganography in Gray scale images. The following methods are compared and analyzed in this paper. 1. The simple LSB method : Secret data is hidden in the Least Significant Bits of the Cover image. Quality of 3-bit LSB stego image is merely acceptable. 2. The optimal LSB methods: To improve the quality of stego image optimal procedure is adapted in LSB embedding. When data is hidden the nearest value is hidden in the cover image so that cover image distortion is minimized. 3. PVD method (Pixel Value Differencing): In this method the image is divided into non-overlapping blocks of two pixels in zig-zag manner. The amount of secret data to be embedded is determined by the difference in pixel values of two adjacent pixels. More amount of data can be hidden when the difference of pixel value is high, and less amount of data is hidden when the difference is low. In this method the cover image is not required for extraction of the secret message. 4. MBNS method (Multiple Based Notation System method): This method is based on Human vision sensitivity(HVS). The amount of secret data that can be hidden in a pixel is determined by a parameter called local variation. Local variation depends on Human Vision Sensitivity, and it is determined by three surrounding pixel values. Greater the value of Local variation, more amount of data can be hidden in that pixel. And less amount of data can be hidden in pixel if local variation value is small. When these methods are compared for low capacity hiding PVD and MBNS approaches produce better stego images than LSB based methods. Zhe-ming-lu et al. [68] this paper proposes an image retrieval scheme based in BTC based Histograms. BTC (Block Truncation Coding) is simple and easy to implement image compression technique. To reduce the bit rate of each part of BTC coded triple data, Vector Quantization is applied. Chin-Chen Chang et al. [19] this paper proposes a reversible data-hiding scheme for embedding secret data in VQ-compressed codes based on the de-clustering strategy and the similar property of adjacent areas in a natural image. This method has more flexibility and higher embedding capacity than other schemes. H. Motameni et al. [25] the authors have proposed a novel technique for hiding text message in a grayscale image. In this method different colors in the cover image are labeled in order to identify dark regions in the image. Data embedding in the these darker regions results in high quality stego images. This method offers more security than other LSB techniques. Zhensong Liao et al. [69] this paper summarizes the present techniques of data hiding capacity techniques. Various Communication channel models and host data models are discussed in this paper. H. Arafat Ali [24] the author, proposes a spatial domain steganographic scheme for JPEG images. This technique is based on statistical analysis and called IVSP (Improving Visual Statistical Properties) Method. This proposed method enhances the statistical properties of the stego image and also reduces the quantization error, which creeps in with JPEG format. And this method is also more secure when compared to the other techniques which are in use presently. Youngran et al. [66] this paper proposes a new method which is able to provide high quality stego image. According to pixels characteristics, number of bits can be embedded in stego image is varying and also providing the integrity of original data. Andrew D. Ker [5] Batch steganography problem deals with spreading payload in multiple covers. Author has proved that the secure steganographic capacity is proportional to the square root of the total cover size. Hong -juan zhang and Hong-jun tang [28], Proposed a novel method of image Steganography which can withstand for statistical analysis tests like RS and Chi-Square steganalysis techniques. Kazuya Sasazaki et al. [35] this paper proposes scheme for hiding data that loss lessly stuffs a data bits into a carrier image using the two differences. In this scheme, a three-pixel block in an image contains two absolute differences-the difference between pixels one and two, and the difference between pixels two and three. Such a difference is called block difference. Chung-Ming Wang et al. [21] this work is an improvement over Wu and Tsai scheme of pixel value differencing (2003). In this method the image is divided in to the blocks of two consecutive pixels and the number of bits that can be embedded is determined from the width of the range table. The reminder of sum of two pixel values with width of suitable range is calculated and modulus of pixel values is adjusted to the decimal value of binary string to be embedded in the block of two consecutive pixels. This method also addresses the falling-off boundary problem and produces high quality stego images than any other technique of spatial domain steganography. But the hiding capacity is low in this method when compared to other methods. Chien-Ping Chang et al. [20] Authors have proposed a novel data hiding scheme that embeds a message into a cover image. This method uses Tri way pixel value differencing method. In this method blocks of four pixels are considered at a time. This four pixel block is divided into three pairs. And the PVD method is applied separately to these three pairs. From the modified pairs on pair is chosen as a reference pair and other two are adjusted. By this method the hiding capacity enormously increases over Pixel Value Differencing Method. But the quality of stego image when expressed in terms of PSNR value decreases. Adem Orsdemir et al. [1] this method is based on the Higher Order Statistics Steganalysis. Generally any steganographer focuses more on undetectability and payload but not about the statistical difference between the stego image and cover image. When the steganographer is well aware of the steganalysis methods HOS steganalyzer and by formulating statistical in distinguish ability requirement, visual quality requirement, and detect ability requirement the method of steganography can withstand the steganalysis methods based on statistical differences. Chin-Chen Chang et al. [16] It is proposed in this method that digital images can be compressed using Block Truncation Coding (BTC). BTC is the most efficient spatial domain method with simple computations and acceptable compression rates. Zhiyuan Zhang et al. [71] generally in two-description image coding the image are partitioned into two parts and each description is produced by alternatively concatenating a finely coded bit stream of the other part. Multi Description Coding is a reliable method for robust transmission over unreliable networks. H.B.Kekre et al. [26] This paper proposes a new improved version of Least Significant Bit (LSB) method. Before embedding the data a 8 bit secret key used and XORed with all the bytes of the message to be embedded. Message is recovered by XOR operation, by the same key. Depending on the MSBs the number of bits of LSB utilized for data embedding are calculated. This method is simple to implement and offers high payload than other methods like PVD. Sathiamoorthy Manoharam [54] analyzes the steganalysis of LSB technique using the RS Steganalysis technique. The two classes of images- natural photographic images and synthetic images are taken as the cover medium. Ahmad T. Al-Taani and Abdullah M. AL-Issa [2] the proposed method provides good quality and high embedding capacity of stego image. Here the carrier image is divided into blocks of equal sizes and then stuffs the original data bits in the edge of the block depending on the number of ones in left four bits of the pixel. Experimental results of this method are compared with Pixel Value Differencing method and Gray Level Modification Method. P. Mouli and M. Mihcak [45] described the data hiding capacities of various image sources. Hong -juan zhang and Hong-jun tang [28] Proposed a novel method of image Steganography which can withstand for statistical analysis tests like RS and Chi-Square steganalysis techniques. 2.3 Literature survey on Network Security John McHugh et al. [33] this paper describes the role of an IDS in an enterprise and also gives survey on mostly used intrusion detection techniques. This paper also describes the various representative systems from the commercial, public, and research areas. Ray Spencer et al. [53] this paper, proposed a Flask micro kernel based operating system, security architecture which provides the solutions for the access rights sort of problems and it is suitable for many operating environments. Clive Grace [22] it gives a detailed understanding of various types of attacks possible and also various types of intrusion detection systems and soft wares. Nong Ye et al. [42] this work paper gives an investigation on a multivariate quality control technique. This method is finds a long-term profile of normal activities in the profiles in order to detect intrusions. Tal Garfinkel and Mendel Rosenblum [59] it proposes the Intrusion detection architecture and also the results are demonstrated to detect the attacks using the IDS which are completely isolated from the monitored host. Tal Garfinkel et al. [58] This architecture provides a tamper resistant trusted hardware platform where each and every application will be running on either the open platform that is general purpose platform or the closed platform that is general purpose platform with security and integrity properties. P. Englund et al. [43] this paper describes the trusted platform which provides a strict control over the software and hardware platforms to withstand the various vulnerabilities. Suresh N.Chari and Pau-Chen Cheng [57] Blue box, the host based IDS, is designed based on the system call introspection. They designed some set of fine grained rules for access control to the system resources. M. Rosenblum and T. Garfinkel.[37] It describes the virtual machine monitor and also how the VMM is useful to provide security. It also looks after the various implementation issues and future directions for the VMM. James E. Smith and Ravi Nair [30] in this paper various levels of abstractions of virtualization and also the architecture of virtual machines are described. Process and system virtual machines are also described over here. Peyman Kabiri and Ali A. Ghorbani [47] it gives a review on current trends and technologies implemented by re- searchers and also elucidated the applications of honey pots to detect attacks. Petar Cisar and Sanja Maravic Cisar [46] this paper describes a flow based algorithm combined with data mining techniques for intrusion detection. Jenni Susan Reuben [31] this paper gives a literature survey on various security issues as well as threats which are common for all virtualization technologies. Zhenwei Yu et al. [60] this paper gives an experimental result for an automatically tuning intrusion detection system which controls the number of alarms output to the system operator and according to the feedback mechanism provided by the system operator, tunes the detection model when false alarms are identified. The Flask architecture of security enhanced Linux for red hat is described in detail in this website [81]. 2.4 CONCLUSION This literature described the various methods and algorithms existing for the steganography and network security. Based on the existing algorithms, the conclusions are proposed to provide the efficient methods for the below 1. Data Security 2. Network Security 2.4.1 Data Security For providing the data security, there are many cryptography and as well as steganography methods existing for the data to be transmitted on the channel. But for any algorithm, it is has its own disadvantages. In the case of Steganography, the basic algorithm is LSB algorithm and some variations on the spatial domain techniques. But at any point of instance, algorithm is public. Once the algorithm is known, attacker will be trying to get the secure data. In this thesis two algorithms are proposed to provide the data security, which were not presented so far, which are as follows: Highly Secured, High Payload and Randomized Image Steganographic Algorithm using Robust Key: In this proposed method, the algorithm used for steganography process is either the PVDM or LSB algorithms depending on the inter pixel difference value in order to increase the data stuffing capacity with out disturbing the quality of the stego image. The position of pixels where to stuff bits will be decided by the stego key which is randomly selected by the user and this key is transmitted to the other party in encrypted form. So the key is robust. Highly Secured, High Quality, High Payload and Randomized Image Steganographic Algorithm using Robust key based on Tri way PVDM Method : In this proposed method, the algorithm used for steganography process is the Tri way PVD with Modulus which is an extension of Tri way PVD [20] in order to increase the stego image quality. The position of pixels where to stuff bits will be decided by the stego key which is randomly selected by the user and transmitted to the other party in encrypted form. So the key is robust. 2.4.2 Network Security For Providing the Network Security, There are many software and hardware devices available like firewalls, IDS etc.,. Generally an intrusion is detected by the IDS, immediately that can be patched by using the available techniques, meanwhile the applications are to be stopped temporarily, where as the proposed trusted architecture for providing network security will provide a self healing intrusion detection system without disturbing the actual state of the system, and trust can be taken back to the system by using the virtualization concepts.

A Comparison of Shakespeares Prince Hamlet and Machiavelli’s The Princ

A Comparison of Prince Hamlet and Machiavelli's The Prince  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚   Machiavelli states that "it is necessary for a prince, who wishes to maintain himself, to learn how not to be good, and use this knowledge and not use it, according to the necessity of the case." Machiavelli's ideas both compare and contrast to the methods used by Hamlet. Hamlet's desire to drive the king mad and eventually kill him, is what he thinks he must do in order to set things right. Hamlet struggles to maintain his position as prince. Perhaps he lacks the essential qualities of a prince outlined by Machiavelli.    According to Machiavelli, the pursuit of all things regarded as virtuous and praiseworthy will only lead to the prince's ruin. This is completely true in the case of Hamlet, because he is on a quest to avenge his father's death. The battle between good and evil is constantly in the forefront of Hamlet's mind, as he wavers between acting civil or getting revenge outright. In the beginning, Hamlet struggles to remain good at all times, but this causes him extreme anguish. Hamlet is an honest man, who grieves for his father. He suffers because of the dishonesty of the others in the court, especially his mother and his uncle, and later, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. Hamlet is able to see through them all, and realize that they're dishonest. He speaks these words to Guildenstern: "Anything but to th' purpose. You were sent for, and there is a kind of confession in your looks, which your modesties have not craft enough to colour. I know the good King and Queen have sent for you." (Hamlet, II, ii., 278-280)    Hamlet's honesty is also seen when he is speaking with his mother. In act I, scene ii, Gertrude asks him why the de... ...e his goal was to get and retain power. He wanted to prove Claudius to be an unfit king, and he did so, but only as Hamlet himself was about to die. Hamlet had to cause grief by killing the king, but in the end, he is seen as a hero, because he unmasked his father's killer.    Sources Cited and Consulted: Gray, Terry A. "Mr. William Shakespeare and the Internet." http://www.palomar.edu/Library/shake.htm. Jones, W. T. Masters of Political Thought. Ed. Edward, McChesner, and Sait. Vol. 2. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1947. Lee A. Jacobus.   A World of Ideas: Essential Readings for College Writers.   5th edition. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1998. Machiavelli, Niccolo. The Prince. Trans. Hill Thompson. Norwalk: The Easton Press, 1980. Shakespeare, William. The Three-Text Hamlet. Eds. Paul Bertram and Bernice Kliman. New York: AMS Press, 1991.

Melody in the Middle Ages Essay

In the early Middle Ages, melodic or textual embellishments added to plainchant were referred to as prosulae. In your own words, summarize the types of plainchant to which prosulae were most often added and the reasons for those additions. The Book of Hymns is one prime example of a prosulae. Plainchant was being sung day in and day out by the monks, who had already added some slight melody, but was still not easy to memorize. By adding some rhythm and separation in syllables throughout the melody, a new way to not only memorize the verses, but also present them, was born. In the early Middle Ages, melodic or textual embellishments added to plainchant were referred to as prosulae. In your own words, summarize Notker’s description of how and why he came to add words to melismas, and his teacher Iso’s response. Notker realized as a young child that he wanted to find a way to remember the words to certain melodies, but with them being so long, he could not. When he came across a man with sequenced verses he was at first excited, but soon disappointed as they did no better than the long, monotonous melodies he remembered as a child. When he decided to add words to these verses and took them to his teacher, Iso, he both appreciated and pitied Notker. He went back and corrected some mistakes pointed out by his teacher, and these changes proved to be successful. The new verses were deemed worthy and copied to a roll for the all of the boys to sing.

Psoriasis Treatment essays

Psoriasis Treatment essays Psoriasis is an autoimmune disorder of the skin, which means that the body's defense system has turned on itself. This causes "angry red lesions to appear on the surface of the skin, multiply, and scale over with silvery patches" (1). Not only do they look hideous, but cause terrible itching and discomfort. "The word (psoriasis) comes from ancient Greece, and means 'to itch'" (1). This disease can be present from birth or not show up until a person is well into their adult years. They can also be found anywhere on the body, from the scalp to the elbows. Psoriasis affects about two percent of the population. The severity can range from a few spots to massive outbreaks covering the whole body, requiring hospitalization. Although the disease is genetically inherited, "it has triggers which can cause the body to go from a very mild case to a severe case within days" (1). Strep throat and spicy foods are examples of triggers that increase the severity. "There are also other fact ors, such as sunlight, which help decrease the severity" (1). There are many types of psoriasis including, nail, scalp, plaque, pustular, guttate, inverse, erythrodermic, and psoriatic arthritis. Plaque psoriasis is the most common type. Along with these irritating physical side effects are the emotional factors. This disease can cause its' victims to feel alienated from fellow coworkers and friends. People who have no experience with the disease tend to be distant towards those who do, because they think it is contagious. To compensate, sufferers often wear pants and long sleeves to cover their skin, even in summer heat, or avoid a social life altogether. There is no known cure for psoriasis, only the hope to control its' severity. Each case of psoriasis is different, and may require a certain form of treatment or a combination of treatments to obtain relief. Most of those available now work to lessen the redness and itching, but tend to be price...

toni morrisons the bluest eye essays

toni morrison's the bluest eye essays In the novel, The Bluest Eye, by Toni Morrison, the evils inflicted upon blacks by a white society indoctrinated by the inherent beauty of whiteness and ugliness of blackness are thoroughly depicted. Morrisons novel illustrates the disastrous affects racism had on African-Americans during the late nineteen hundreds. The Bluest Eye is a bitter novel that vividly reflects the way in which blacks were treated unfairly, and more important, how most blacks were unable to resist oppression from whites during the late nineteenth century. Blacks believed the sole reason for their unhappiness was due to their dark skin. Sadly, the poverty and discrimination that blacks faced causes them to idealize the white race instead of fight for freedom and equality. Throughout the course of this novel Morrison suggests that if blacks do not take a stand against oppressive whites they will become obsessed with the beauty and happiness of white families and upper-class blacks. According to critic Raymond Hedin, Morrison divides the novel into small excerpts of the Dick and Jane primer to contrast the happiness of upper class white family life, to the despair of poverty-stricken blacks. For instance, the chapter that introduces the Breedlove family to the reader is prefaced by the primers reference to Janes very happy family life: HEREISTHEFAMILYMOTHERFATHERDICKANDJANETHEYLIVEINTHEGREENANDWHITEHOUSETHEYAREVERYH (Morrison 38) The family described in the subsequent pages of the novel is the complete opposite of the ideal (white) American family described in the primer. The family portrayed in this chapter is the Breedlove family, a family that is overwhelmed with scorn and hatred. In this chapter the reader is informed that the Breedlove family is utterly dysfunctional because Cholly is a drunkard, Pauline is a perversely self-serving Christian, Sammy is a runaway, and ...

FEX_HUM310 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

FEX_HUM310 - Essay Example It is very democratic because having a book about how to become important levels the playing field. This article was important because at the time, everybody thought a Catholic president would basically just do whatever the Pope said without thinking of America first. However, Smiths article argues that this belief was completely against Americas constitution, which allowed for both freedom of religion and the separation of church and state. It influenced American values by drawing peoples attention again to the basic rights set out by the constitution with regards to religious rights. On the Road, like other books and poems published during the Beat Generation, was a book that really called into question the traditional values of America. It represented a big shift in the way people thought about things, and was very liberal or even radical. Once people accepted it America began to accept more liberal ideas. The Feminine Mystique is an important book because it drew attention to the way American women were still mostly a subservient gender. They were unhappy, but because for them to be happy might call into question traditional values about what women were supposed to do in the home, not many people wanted to know about their unhappiness at first. Friedans book brought this problem to the national attention. Martin Luther King Jr. wrote the letter in response to criticism of his protests in Birmingham Alabama. He claimed that unjust laws should be disobeyed because of morals. It is a significant document because it suggests that America was not as good at giving everybody an equal, democratic chance as it wished to believe. It also sets forth an alternative way for the oppressed people like African-Americans to change their country for the better. Bellow was controversial because of his conservative social and political views. He made statements and

Pop Art and Harlem Renaissance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Pop Art and Harlem Renaissance - Essay Example Harlem Renaissance was characterized by an overt racial pride that was representing the New Negro idea, who believed through production and intellect of music, art, and literature could challenge the pervading stereotypes and racism to foster socialist or progressive politics, social, and racial integration (Wintz, 2007). The movement sought to break free of bourgeois shame and Victorian moral values about lives’ aspects that may be seen by the whites as reinforcing racist beliefs. It should be noted that a specific school of thought did not dominate the Harlem Renaissance; instead, it was characterized by intense debate that laid the groundwork for subsequent African American art. It attracted a remarkable concentration of talent and intellect and served as an inspiration of cultural awakening. Pop Art Renaissance happened in the mid twentieth century, in the late 1950s in the United States and earlier on in the mid-1950s in Britain. The history of pop art in the Great Britai n and North America developed differently. In the Great Britain, its origin can be traced in the post-war period and employed parody and irony. It was more academic focusing on the dynamic and paradoxically imagery of the American Popular culture as manipulative, powerful symbolic devices that was not only improving society’s prosperity, but also affected patterns of life (Wilkins and Zaczek, 2005). The precursor to the pop art Renaissance in Britain was the formation of the Independent Group in 1952 in London. This group was a gathering of young architects, critics, painters, writers, and sculptors who were challenging modernist approaches that were prevailing to culture and traditional fine art views. The discussions of this group revolved around the

Dynamics of machine Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Dynamics of machine - Essay Example can easily be determined especially if the equations are of the mechanical system or machine units, which usually consists of larger components of machines such as motors, transmission mechanisms, and control devices or in most cases a working machine. The concept of dynamic of machine consists of a number of equations that are equal to the number of degree of mechanical system’s freedom. For the equation to work or to enhance the ease of the mechanism operation, all forces or masses in a plane mechanism with a single degree of freedom are to be reduced to a single link which is normally called reference point or reduction link (89). And the subjective link that is to be applied to the reduction link is known as reduced moment of inertia. When the moment of reduction is equal to the aggregate of all moments and the forces applied to the links of the mechanism, the subjective moment of inertia is considered to be the reduced moment of inertia. The chain of the equation of dynamic of machines includes the determination of the kinetic energy, and when the kinetic energy of the reduction link is equal to the sum of the kinetic energy of all of the mechanism, the reduced force can be analogously (100). Through rational selection and placement of counterweights, that reduces the dynamic pressure in kinematic pair of mechanisms the concept of machines and mechanism can be easily balanced. Practically the machines are always balanced by reducing the vibrations and balancing the rotation of masses, while in modern high speed machines the inertia forces attain high values (100). The relation of the dynamic studies in machines is highly linked to the calculation of the strength and stiffness of the machine components that highly relates to the dimension and the designs of the parts. The studies are also performed through three dimensions mechanisms and with many degrees of freedom. Therefore it is important to notice that the operations performed by systems of high

The Key Political Ideas Essay Example for Free

The Key Political Ideas Essay Over the past 150 years a number of new political ideas have developed and been accepted as normal practice throughout the majority of European and international society, these come from all sectors on the political spectrum; ranging from extreme left to extreme right. Most of these have been manifested in one way or another since as far back as the middle ages, but it is only in very recent history that they have really ‘stolen the limelight’. These ideas are not only responsible for forming the contemporary societies we live in, but also along the way they have influenced some of the most principal and key events history cares to remember. These political ideas that have developed can be classified into two separate categories. The first category includes liberalism and nationalism, both of which are not confined to one country, these are broad ideals and can be found in many ideologies throughout the world we live in today. The second involves the more radical and extreme ideologies such as Fascism, Communism and Nazism. The main school of thought indicates that the first category contains the base ideals for the second categories more extreme politics. For example Nationalism is widely believed to be the basis for Fascism. History is created when something changes and we look back at what it was before. The period of study is full of history, therefore it is also packed full with change and developments. Main areas of change were the specific areas of politics, societal change and economic change. 150 years ago, perhaps the most significant change in recent history was sweeping the world. Industrial revolutions were now seen as the way forward and Britain was at the heart, other countries were beginning to follow suit. Gone were the days of people and animals powering the machines that would draw in the harvest or produce the goods. Now machines would signify a better and more stable economic life for everybody. Or would they? One of the most prominent effects of the industrial revolution was that now people had lost their jobs to machines then surely they would not be needed by the owners of the means of production. It would only take a small number of men to operate the machines, surely the rest would have to look elsewhere for work? Not long before a German Sociologist and Historian named Karl Marx had warned against the dangers of the industrial revolution for the workers. His theory was largely ignored at the time of writing but by the time ten years had passed, his ideas had become widely accepted, cue Socialism. Marx had felt that the industrial revolution would shorten the gap between the owners of the means of production and the upper classes. A bourgeoisie culture would arise, but if these people were getting richer then the poor would only get poorer. The proletariat as he referred to them, would not benefit from this industrial revolution, the new economic age would only heighten the gap between bourgeois and proletariat. Only a small number of workers would benefit with the revolution, the rest left to become the minority, the ‘proles’ who had no influence or power, by the early 1850’s, the Proletariat had become the largest growing class group in Europe, yet they still held the minority status. Only a small number had joined trade unions, but the reason behind this was that they were illegal in a lot of places. For the Proletariat, any benefits the revolution may hold would have to wait in the future. Marx’s ideas would soon become a force in driving the striving proletariat into achieving what they believed to be a healthy state of living. Marx highlighted the fact that throughout the whole of history, the mode of production was decided upon by a small elite who only stood to gain from it, by making themselves in charge and reaping the benefits, whilst the majority of people would tire night and day helping the elite achieve their aims of being richer and more powerful. Marx also wrote on how every system that would take this form would be plagued with conflict, as the rich attempted to exploit the poor. He realised to the people however, that every system that relied so heavily on this exploitation had cracks that could be widened until the system eventually destroyed itself, he felt that Capitalism would eventually ‘Choke on it’s own wealth’. Marx felt that once the Capitalist system had destroyed itself, the system would be replaced by a new ideal, of a government run by, and for the people. The oppressed would turn against the oppressors, private ownership would be abolished, industry and commerce would now not be in the business of profit-making, but more to do with producing what was needed to get by. This was prophesised by Marx, who believed it would occur in the most highly advanced and capitalist countries in the west of Europe. This prophecy by Marx is yet to come true, many have tried and failed to instil the ideals, but pure Marxism has yet to be realised. By the many, it is meant that for example in Russia where the Bolsheviks, a Communist group, came to power, the country that lay before them did not comply with the stringent conditions Marx had laid for the realisation of his theory. Russia at the time of the Bolshevik revolution, was largely a backward country. Many of the citizens were illiterate peasants with no political experience whatsoever, the country had only just shown shades of industrialisation and the economy was in a terrible state. The previous system of government had been the Autocratic Tsarist system, not strictly a Capitalist system, due to the lack of industrialisation. This system of government had weakened after a series of reforms had been demanded, it eventually crumbled away leading a period of political tempest and reformation, this was then succeeded by the revolutions of the Bolsheviks, a group of Russian-Marxist Zealots led by Lenin, they seized power and later became the Communist Party. From the onset the Communist party were faced with a indomitable task, to take a country as backward as Russia and speed up the economy, prepare the people for twentieth century life and later industrialise to a similar level as the rest of Europe, whilst at the same time becoming a military power. Russia had been devastated from World War I and the only way to succeed in bringing any remote prosperity to the land was through a method of rule which involved suppressing individual power and concentrating every into state hands. The result was a term that very much summed up the Communist rule, ‘Totalitarianism’, in a way this was similar to the autocratic rule of the Tsar, but the consequences were promised to be better than the hardship and backwardness of the nineteenth century. The totalitarian system of government was not quite as apparent under Lenin’s rule as his was under his successor’s leadership. Such was the totalitarian extent of Joszef Stalin’s rule that many have substituted the word ‘Totalitarianism’ for ‘Stalinism’. The police state was everything, harsh discipline and economic limitations had to be imposed for success purposes. The government had total power, citizens were basically a tool of the state, used for work and as a catalyst to reach the utopian goal. This form of rule however, was in no way the method of reaching the utopia society that Marx had foreseen, there was absolutely no way forward for the people of Russia. This became apparent by the late 1980’s, when over thirty years after the death of the tyrant Stalin, the USSR was still managed in an authoritarian method, a huge bureaucratic regime where the people were distanced from the management and the communication routes for individual expression lay false and laden with danger. Official word of the Soviet government however was still promoting the false dream that the Socialist state had been achieved and that pure Communism was only a heartbeat away. It would not be fair to say that the Bolshevik system had replaced one evil for greater one. Since the second World War, the state of Russia had made huge strides towards security both economically and socially. By the 1980’s the USSR had become the world’s second highest ranked industrial country, living standards had risen significantly (although still lower than that of the Western Countries), and scientific and technological advances helped illustrate that the government had made good strides into educating a workforce quite capable of intelligent thought. However, coupled with this was the fact that the government was still of totalitarian stock and therefore had only reached the pivotal stage in Marxist theory, the dictatorship of the masses. There was no way that this could have progressed towards the final utopia. By the end of the decade this had finally dawned upon society, Nationalist uprisings throughout the Soviet Bloc, and internal political disagreements led to the final dissolution of the Soviet rule in 1991. The people of the great Soviet Union had been led on too long, they had finally decided that the decades of low economic standards and harsh militarial rule were no longer aimed at reaching the goal, they were just installed now to keep the people quiet. The people were grateful for the changes that had been made but were now impressed by the high standards of living that were rumoured about in the west. When the ‘Iron Curtain’ finally fell, the state of Eastern Europe was not one of complete turmoil, but the picture painted was of one of hardship, violence and oppression. If this was pure Communism then Capitalism need have very few worries. If Communism involved a police state and oppression, then at the other end of the scale was liberalism, a political ideal that was the exact opposite, designed to combat these exact values and create a state that was fit for mankind to live in humanely. European Liberalism can be first documented from the time of the French Revolution. The 1789 revolution draws largely upon liberalism as the reason why they are revolting against the oppression and autocratic rule. The classic quote from the ‘Declaration of the rights of man and the citizen’ reads ‘protection of the unprescriptable rights of liberty, security, property and resistance to oppression.’ These were basic rights that every man should have, it is a kind of humanitarian ‘communism’ whereby everybody is equal as a man and everybody is equal in front of the law, regardless of wealth or status. These ideals recurred in every demand by liberals for reform from that moment on. Following the rise of the new European Middle Classes in the early nineteenth century, a new challenge arose to those who had the power due to being born into the right family. The educated society outside of nobility were tired of being oppressed into accepting the ‘blue blooded’ constitutions that had evolved over centuries. They did not believe in the divine right to rule. They felt that the true way to run a country was through electoral motion, whereby a Parliament of educated and responsible elite took the power away from the ‘blue blood’ and made democratic decisions over what was right for the country they lived in. Yet because they were not committed revolutionaries intent on causing havoc until their demands were met, they were making very few steps towards achieving their goal of the liberal and Parliamentary society, especially when faced with experienced ministers as Metternich, the ‘main man’ in the Hapsburg Dynasty of Austria. Their suggestions were constantly laughed off, that was until 1848 when things finally came to a head. Early in this year the revolutions that had been imminent throughout Europe for almost twenty years finally were set into motion. These revolutions had been expected for a long while, the national revolutionaries were the most recognised groups fighting for change. However this time they were joined by a number of Liberal Revolutionary groups. Most of the liberals came from middle-class backgrounds and were businessmen fighting for the right to self-government and personal liberty, demanding that the servant-culture so apparent throughout the monarchical countries be severed and replaced with a freedom of speech for all policy. They managed to turn a few heads when at the end of the revolutions, their manifesto had been well received, and what seemed like a group of almost revolutionaries had managed to alter the course of political, social and economic history forever. However, with hindsight it is noted by major historians that the 1848 revolutions which had seemed so successful were not quite what they were thought to be. Trevelyan writes ‘1848 was the turning point at which modern history failed to turn.’ Recent historians suggest that 1848 did not bring much social and political change, this however is only apparent when looking from a liberal perspective, not from a nationalist view. In a number of ways liberalism ties in very well with Nationalism and the fact that both had their roots lie in the French Revolution promotes a sense of enormous brotherhood amongst them. The nationalists above all follow the idea that the ‘source of all sovereignty lies in the nation’, whilst the liberals have an intense dislike of Conservative Foreign powers. The nationalists in this sense were not racially orientated, nor were they into any kind of aggression about expansion and power, they basically wanted the same sort of brotherhood that the liberals wanted. One where the nation treats everybody similarly in the eyes of the law, and a nation where the rule of a number of elite intelligentsia will work for the greatness of that nations and not for the greatness of themselves. If liberalism was the glue that helped to initiate the revolutions of 1848, then Nationalism was by far the brush that it was applied with, it was the forerunning catalyst that engaged the need change. It was their campaign that led to the clash with the old orders and eventually caused them to give somewhat. The revolts had started a process of modernisation amongst the European System of governing, some of these changes were not strictly in keeping with the aims of the nationalist idealists. One of the more notable leaps into modernisation was the arrival of the new conservative rulers who realised that to pacify the masses they must appeal to them in a way that would suit their interests. Rulers who had before seen themselves as the divine ruler and kept unquestionable power were now beginning to see the benefits they would receive if they adopted a favourable stance towards nationalism. Before they had been opposed to Nationalism but now they saw it as a way of making the masses accept them as a king or queen, the masses could relate more to a leader if they were seen to be working for the greatness of the country at large, some rulers even went one step further by setting up institution that would now concentrate more power into the citizen’s hands. Whilst this was going on, German and Italian middle class liberalists who had failed to realise unification through the use of liberal tactics now turned away from their allegiance in favour of adopting a more nationalist stance. Middle class militants throughout Europe now grew closer intent on securing the goal of Conservative Liberalism and soon the prospect of two new states of Germany and Italy was shining through the previous dark clouds. In the Italian state of Piedmont, Camillio di Cavour was Prime Minister, he had been implementing economic policies that were proving admirable to the Italians of nearby states. His liberal stance was realised by the calculated leaders of some of the more powerful modernising states throughout Europe. They came to him with a redrawn map of political Europe with an aim of creating a new Kingdom of Italy. He already had the admiration of most nearby Italians, he was then left to use political diplomacy in order to force the Austrians out of Italy, his plans and policies proved successful and the new Italian Kingdom was just about complete when all but two states had joined the kingdom dominated by Piedmont, those two states joined ten years later. His cunning policy had gained him the success in creating a united Italian state, this was the success that had been eluding the more idealistic nationalists that wished for the same result. The same sort of thing was going on in Germany whereby Prussian Minister-President Otto Von Bismarck, was following similar policies to Cavour and soon had initiated the German state. However, in contrast to Cavour, Bismarck had won mass support for his king and together they devised a type of Nationalism that was more conservative and incorporated Bourgeois economics and popular authoritarianism. This conservative Nationalism allowed Bismarck to modernise the economy and constitution in Germany without having to become a liberal. Once these states were achieving political modernity the whole of Europe began a process of economic modernisation. This allowed the already industrialised states to become highly industrial, and also for the rest to join the industrial revolution. These changes in political styles of governing allowed the way for new breakthroughs in science and technology. Major breakthroughs in natural science coincided with the idea that science was now the way to answer all theoretical questions about life, humanity and other relevant topics. No longer the romanticism of the philosophical answers, idealism was now a thing of the past and the stage was set for the realist attitude that had been sweeping European politics to become the new and socially approved way of thinking. Nationalism provided the chance for members of the old order to restructure the way that they governed their lands, the people had called for change and conservative nationalism had provided the answer. However with Nationalism came the patriotic idea, and the danger that lay within this idea was that it could become too fierce. This did indeed happen and the resulting political ideal was perhaps the most dangerous we have seen throughout history, Fascism. The basic concept of Fascism was to ensure a process of regeneration in the areas of the social, economic and cultural ways of life through the concept of ethnic belonging and identity. Fascism was a strictly conflict theory and quite violently rejected liberal ideas such as freedom of expression and individual rights. The way Fascism works is that it is so extremely nationalist that it often leads to wars and destruction. The concept of Fascism really only arose in the early part of the twentieth century, even though it was not widely popular, there was usually a Fascist group operating in every country of any significance. The key to Fascist success lay within the mass destruction and suffering that had occurred in World War I, coupled with this physical devastation a number of countries were also in the middle of political upheaval. The fierce patriotism that resulted would be played upon by the Fascist groups. However it is safe to say that with the quite notable exceptions of Germany and Italy, Fascism in itself never managed to do much in the rest of Europe. In both Italy and Germany the Fascist movements managed to manouvere themselves into power, which would last until the end of World War II. The result as we know is a period of intense totalitarian rule that would lead to the deaths of millions of people. It seems easy to write but it is almost impossible to get across on paper exactly how in tense this Fascist-era was. The major Fascist force throughout Europe was the Nazi Party in Germany, although Mussolini was the founder of the ideal and the first leader, he was in effect extremely weak and ineffective. Hitler’s Germany on the other hand was a well-oiled Fascist bandwagon that kept going from strength to strength. Hitler’s plans to destroy an old and unfit Germany and replace it with the most potent nation in the world was no secret. Through the abolition of democracy and such institutions causing a person to choose, Hitler’s Nazis managed to remove anything that would cause National divisions. The replacement was the implementation of the Third Reich ideal, something that the German’s as a people could work towards, the core and the roots of the new healthy Germany. The Third Reich promoted German culture, youth and it’s importance to securing future strength and above all an allegiance to the Aryan ideal both physically and mentally. Nazism used this ethnic ideal to create it’s foreign policy, this was the same foreign policy that would lead to world war. Firstly it involved the unification of all German’s into a mother country, then once that objective had been fulfilled they would initiate the imperial policy of a Nazified Europe free from all racial enemies. It was this myth of Nazi superiority that really appealed the Germans as a people. Nazi literature would write of scientific proof that Natural Selection had led the Aryan to becoming the most advanced race on Earth, this theory of Social-Darwinism also prescribed that the Jewish race were the ‘primates on the chart’, the least evolved of all races, and it was this that was supposed to excuse the barbaric nature with which they were dealt with. This culturally based belief was one of the two most significant parts of Nazism as a political ideal. The second was the development of a modern economic structure and a modern social stratification system. Even after the devastating terms of the Treaty of Versailles, German society was still one of the most advanced in the world. The Governmental infrastructure was superior and the standards of education and living really were good in context. Coupled with the huge economic potential of industry Germany were still near the top of the power structure in Europe. One advantage that the German’s had, was their deep belief in culture and identity. They respected their history and had utmost respect for great Germans, this is why they were not really ready for democracy. They had been living under Autocratic rule for a long time and to simply adjust is not as easy as it sounds, it was almost inevitable that a dictatorship be formed as the people were more or less crying out for it . Hitler’s take on Fascism was far more extreme and committed than that of Mussolini’s. The German had a great deal more commitment to the Totalitarian principle, the race based ideology. Mussolini on the other hand was a little more liberal and didn’t really have a watertight plan as to his aims. This is not to say that the Italian was not committed, and Italian Fascism is still radical. In Italy Fascism was far less effective than in Germany and it did not really enter into peoples lives as much as the German take on it. However the two ideals came together when it came to overall aims, for Italy the idea was a rebirth of the Roman empire that once had made Italy so great; for Germany the concept was the re-aryanisation of Europe to create the ideal national community. Vitally important to both states were the state economies. Germany’s economy had been struggling since the double impact of the Ruhr crisis and the Wall Street Crash, she had been keeping extremely low reserves of foreign currency and her Balance of Payments was in drastic deficit. However, the Nazis employed Schacht to control the economy, he was a supremely efficient economist and by clever manipulation managed to produce impressive and more than stable results. The Italian economy on the other hand was fluctuating between ‘bad’ and ‘worse’ when Mussolini and his crew took charge. Mussolini took on board his own concept of the ‘corporate state’, whereby socio-economic classes lived and ruled themselves in harmony. The ‘corporate state’ however was merely a myth and the result was that behind it Mussolini was approving economic supremacy for propertied interest. The plan for it to yield prosperity for all was ludicrous. The Nazi party were also in the business of creating a huge social change throughout Germany, this was a plan to create a harmonious people who would stay allied to the cause. This was not quite as important as the economic program but no less effort went into it to ensure that it was successful. The truth is however that no matter how hard they tried the Nazis could not attain the social revolution they wished for. In the end they had to settle for a contented society, not one who were happy all the time with the government. One thing that they did manage though was the near elimination of unemployment, this was a minor miracle in itself, especially considering that in 1929 almost 6 million Germans were receiving no salary at all. The rise in production and sales figures for consumer goods in the early thirties suggest a rise in the standard of living. Because of the lack of commitment in Italy, the Fascist period for them was one of a decline in living standards, researchers have found it hard to put an accurate estimate on the extent of the decline, but one of the best estimates is that a farm labourer lost half of the value of his real wages in the period 1929-1937. One thing that the Fascists did give was a range of benefits for the worker, such as sick pay, holiday pay, severance pay and end of year bonuses. Many of these benefits were important to the Fascists and their success is easy to see as most are still in use today in all industrial countries. Over the past 150 years, it is quite clear that some of the political ideas have in some way or another influenced the change and development that has occurred in society. Some have influenced society in a positive way, whilst others have perhaps added a negativity to society. Socialism has helped highlight the fact that it is easy for Capitalist systems to neglect and exploit the worker. The reaction to this has been to make a number of reforms and draw up a list of workers rights. If Socialism had not been realised then even today we may still see men growing extremely rich upon the exploitative toils of the common worker. As it is men do grow rich off of workers toils but the exploitation is certainly not considered a regular problem in European society. The extremity of Socialism, Communism however has illustrated that attempts to create utopian societies are more or less in vain as human nature dictates that the equality and economic similarity cannot be achieved. Liberalism and Nationalism are perhaps the most influential political ideals that have come about in the last century and a half. They have helped design the standard style of government for contemporary society, whereby democracy prevails and the issues of the masses are dealt with in a way that best suits them by people they have elected to represent them. The Nationalist approach has seen the modernisation of economies and encouraged all European countries to industrialise. This has been for the good of all as a more stable economy creates greater employment and subsequently a better standard of living. The Fascist and Nazi dawns have obviously shed a darker light on the development of society. They have shown how barbaric people can really be, however had they not occurred then society would be a different place. They have helped show that in a multi-cultural society extreme racism is not acceptable, and hopefully with the disastrous consequences they inflicted upon themselves, they will have dissuaded people today who may have the urge to try and take over Europe. The basic underlying theme is that without these ideals then the world as we know it today would be different, our economies have been modernised by them, our living standards have been raised by them and our political influence has been greatened by them, these are the three most significant changes they have influenced and the fact they have covered social, economic and political factors is an example of how important the development of new political theories and ideals is. What these political ideals have left us with is the latest theory, and the one that many societies use today, Liberal-Capitalism is believed to be the end of history. The way in which free market business is encouraged, yet the exploitation of the common worker is not the norm. Whether this is the end of history is yet to be determined, for we don’t know whether Marx’s pure, utopian Communist society will happen, or whether a Fascist regime that has all the appeal to control Europe could occur. In my opinion these ideals have contributed to the development of the fairest society possible today, but tomorrow who knows?